Ideas realized
Click on images for greater detail.
Constellations (modern) key, by family and year established, and ecliptic:
Constellations map (see key above):
Constellations of Northern Hemisphere:
Constellations of Southern Hemisphere:
“[Carl] Sagan was a member of the Voyager Imaging Team. He had the original idea in 1981 to use the cameras on one of the two Voyager spacecraft to image Earth. He realized that because the spacecraft were so far away the images might not show much. This was precisely why Sagan and other members of the Voyager team felt the images were needed — they wanted humanity to see Earth’s vulnerability and that our home world is just a tiny, fragile speck in the cosmic ocean.” Nasa.gov: Voyager 1’s Pale Blue Dot
SOTO is an interactive web-based tool, created by NASA’s Physical Oceanography DAAC (PO.DAAC) to generate informative maps, animations, and plots that communicate and prove the discovery and analysis of the state of the oceans.
The suite of tools provide access to a broad range of satellite-derived products and key parameters of interest to the oceanographic community.
Mission
“ Through the Looking GLASS: A James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) Exploration of Galaxy Formation and Evolution from Cosmic Dawn to Present Day
Grism Lens-Amplified Survey from Space (GLASS) is one of JWST Director’s Discretionary Early Release Science Programs, and will be focused on two main science areas: (1) understanding the reionization of the universe less than 1 billion years after the Big Bang: (2) understanding how gas and heavy elements are distributed (chemical abundance) within and around galaxies over time.
Focus Area
(1) Ionization is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons, often in conjunction with other chemical changes. In the fields of Big Bang theory and cosmology, reionization is the process that caused matter in the universe to reionize after the lapse of the “dark ages” which began around 370,000 years after the Big Bang. During the Dark Ages, the temperature of the universe cooled from some 4,000 (K)elvin to about 60 K (3,727 °C to about −213 °C) and though the universe was transparent it was dark, as only two sources of photons (visible light) existed: (a) the photons released during recombination or decoupling (as neutral hydrogen atoms formed), which we can still detect today as the cosmic microwave background (CMB); (b) photons occasionally released by neutral hydrogen atoms.
While the majority of baryonic matter in the universe is in the form of hydrogen and helium, reionization usually refers strictly to the reionization of hydrogen. Baryonic matter is a type of composite subatomic particle which contains an odd number of valence quarks (at least 3) and belong to the hadron family of particles which includes protons and the neutrons.
(2) The abundance of the chemical elements is a measure of the occurrence of the chemical elements relative to all other elements in a given environment. The abundance of chemical elements in the universe is dominated by the large amounts of hydrogen and helium which were produced in the Big Bang. Remaining elements, making up only about 2% of the universe, were largely produced by supernovae and red giant stars.
Method
GLASS will combine the natural magnifying power of gravitational lensing, caused by the massive galaxy cluster Abell 2744 (one of the Frontier Fields), with JWST’s incredible sensitivity to measure detailed properties of distant galaxies in the early universe.
Abell 2744, nicknamed Pandora’s Cluster, is a giant galaxy cluster resulting from the simultaneous pile-up of at least four separate, smaller galaxy clusters that took place over a span of 350 million years. It is located approximately 4 billion light years from Earth. The galaxies in the cluster make up less than five percent of its mass. The cluster’s gas (accounting for around 20 percent of the cluster’s mass) is so hot that it shines only in X-rays. And dark matter makes up the remaining 75 percent of the cluster’s mass.
Dark matter does not emit, absorb, or reflect light, but it makes itself apparent through its gravitational attraction. To pinpoint the location of this elusive substance gravitational lensing is exploited. A gravitational lens is a distribution of matter (such as a cluster of galaxies) between a distant light source and an observer, that is capable of bending the light from the source as the light travels toward the observer. This bending of light rays from distant galaxies as they pass through the gravitational field created by the cluster forms a series of telltale distortions in the images of galaxies observed in the background of observations from the Hubble and Very Large Telescope (VLT). The mass of Abel 2744 will act as a sort of massive but distant focal lense.
Key Science Drivers
(1) To shed light upon the role of galaxies in reionizing the universe, the topology of high redshift intergalactic/interstellar medium and on Lyman alpha escape fraction. A redshift is an increase in the wavelength, and corresponding decrease in the frequency and photon energy, of electromagnetic radiation (such as light). The opposite change, a decrease in wavelength and simultaneous increase in frequency and energy, is known as a negative redshift, or blueshift. The value of a redshift is often denoted by the letter z, corresponding to the fractional change in wavelength (positive for redshifts, negative for blueshifts), and by the wavelength ratio 1 + z (which is >1 for redshifts, <1 for blueshifts). It is commonly believed that galaxies at z ≳ 5 are the dominant sources for cosmic reionization. The escape fraction of Lyman-continuum (LyC), or hydrogen ionizing photons from these galaxies is hence an important question for understanding the reionization process.
(2) To study: (a) gas accretion, the accumulation of particles into a massive object by gravitationally attracting more matter); (b) star formation and outflows by mapping spatially resolved star formation, where spatial resolution is a measure of the smallest object that can be resolved by the sensor; (c) metallicity, the abundance of elements present in an object that are heavier than hydrogen and helium) gradients in galaxies at z = 1.3 – 2.3.
(3) To study the environmental dependence of galaxy evolution.
References: Space Telescope Science Institute glass.astro.ucla.edu NASA Wikipedia: Reionization; Abel 2744; Chemical Abundance; Gravitational lens
The plane of Earth’s orbit projected in all directions forms the reference plane known as the ecliptic. Here, it is shown projected outward (gray) to the celestial sphere, along with Earth’s equator and polar axis(green). The plane of the ecliptic intersects the celestial sphere along a great circle (black), the same circle on which the Sun seems to move as Earth orbits it. The intersections of the ecliptic and the equator on the celestial sphere are the vernal and autumnal equinoxes(red), where the Sun seems to cross the celestial equator.
The Earth in its orbit around the Sun causes the Sun to appear on the celestial sphere moving along the ecliptic (red), which is tilted 23.44° with respect to the celestial equator (blue-white)
As seen from the orbiting Earth, the Sun, appears to move with respect to the fixed stars, and the ecliptic is the yearly path the Sun follows on the celestial sphere. This process repeats itself in a cycle lasting a little over 365 days.
Earth rotating within a relatively small-radius geocentric celestial sphere. Shown here are stars (white), the ecliptic (red, the circumscription of the Sun’s apparent annual track), and the lines of right ascension and circles of declination (cyan) of the equatorial coordinate system.
The twelve ecliptic signs. Each dot marks the start of a sign and they are separated by 30°. The intersection of the celestial equator and the ecliptic define the equinoctial points: First Point of Aries (
) and First Point of Libra (
). The great circle containing the celestial poles and the ecliptic poles (P and P’), intersect the ecliptic at 0° Cancer (
) and 0° Capricorn (
). In this illustration, the Sun is schematically positioned at the start of Aquarius (
).
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Aries |
The Ram |
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Taurus |
The Bull |
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Gemini |
The Twins |
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Cancer |
The Crab |
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Leo |
The Lion |
|
Virgo |
The Maiden |
|
Libra |
The Scales |
|
Scorpio |
The Scorpion |
|
Sagittarius |
The Archer (Centaur) |
|
Capricorn |
The Goat |
|
Aquarius |
The Water-bearer |
|
Pisces |
The Fish |
Traditional Latin transliteration of Greek letters.
Α α Alpha A a Β β Beta B b Γ γ Gamma G g Δ δ Delta D d Ε ε Epsilon E e Ζ ζ Zeta Z z Η η Eta Ē ē Θ θ Theta Th th Ι ι Iota I i Κ κ Kappa C c, K k Λ λ Lambda L l Μ μ Mu M m Ν ν Nu N n Ξ ξ Xi X x Ο ο Omicron O o Π π Pi P p Ρ ρ Rho R r, Rh rh Σ σ/ς Sigma S s Τ τ Tau T t Υ υ Upsilon Y y, U u Φ φ Phi Ph ph Χ χ Chi Ch ch, Kh kh Ψ ψ Psi Ps ps Ω ω Omega Ō ō
Vowel combinations: (αι, οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩
In order of proposed manifestation:
Unknown/unknowable
Random structural (natural law)
Propagation through reproduction
Observational
Cultural (inception of abstract thinking)
Inferred (recognition of abstract thinking)
Deduced
Drops within drops within drops…
Supposition
If it requires force to propel mass through the spatial dimension of spacetime, would it not follow that there be a requisite force to propel mass through the temporal dimension of spacetime?
Thought Experiment
Let us view “time” as a near-infinite well in which an object, that is said to have a beginning, is dropped into the well at its origination. Further let us drop Object A (Origination Event A) into the well and let us let A fall for twenty years (10,512,000 seconds). Prior to dropping Object B into the time-well it can be said that Object B has been falling for zero percent of the time A has been falling, B does not “exist” yet. Dropping Object B (Origination Event B) and allowing it to fall for one minute (60 seconds), it can be said that B has been falling for .0000000951% as long as A has been falling.
Given another 20 years after Origination Event B, Object A would have fallen into the time-well for 40 years and Object B would have fallen for 20 years. Object B would have been falling for 50% of the time A would have been falling. Given 500 years after “Origination Event A, Object B would have been falling for 97% (480 years) of the time A would have been falling (500 years). Ever closer to 100 percent.
In order to attain 100% the denominators would have to be equal in value, the only number that could possibly be is infinity, meaning both objects would have to fall for an infinite amount of “time.” From an independent frame of reference it would seem to a persistent witness that Object B accelerated toward Object A in the time-well but that it can never quite catch up, unless given an infinite amount of time.
Continuum
The above thought experiment simplifies spacetime into the time dimension and one spatial dimension. Let us now imagine that there is a force accelerating the objects through time not unlike how gravity would accelerate the masses of A/B (toward a very massive and distant center of gravity) in the above “time-well” thought experiment. Let us also imagine that instead of “falling” objects particles are accelerated through their worldlines. It would seem to take an infinite (or near such) amount of this supposed “time-force/energy” to propel particles toward infinity (not unlike the requisite amount of energy needed to create a very massive object, propel mass to the speed of light, or even create a universe.)
This “time-force/energy,” it is further supposed, originated at the Big-Drop (a reimagining of the Big Bang), when all particles in the universe were propelled into the time dimension (dropped into the time-well). All particles would appear chaotically random but would follow their predetermined worldine (per primordial rules and conditions) as determined at the origination event, Big Drop, (like surface waves from a disturbance in a pond). All predeterminate temporal “events” can be seen has happening instantaneously in infinity (no-time or end of time). We merely perceive the “passage” of time as our consciousness is a manifestation of an entropic chemical process.
Everything not held together by binding forces (gravity, electromagnetism, strong and weak interaction ) would be “seen” as falling away from everything else in all dimensions of spacetime. Given enough “time” or more accurately if able to witness all worldlines in the universe, eventually even the binding forces will succumb to “time” and “return” to the emptiness of no-time/infinity.
Reflective
Can it be said that, “everything”’essentially exists in its own “time-well” receding from everything else?
If cosmic objects were viewed as falling away from each other in the curvatures of time as well as in the three spatial dimensions at ever increasing speed (all dimensions of spacetime instead of falling away in space only), would this “time force/energy”’ manifest in a way similar to the noticeable effects attributed to dark energy?
From the frame of reference of any one observer, would it not appear as if this force was accelerating the longer one observed or the further back in time one looked?