From “The Mind and its Functions”
By Geshe Rabten
Chapter 1 and 2, excerpts herein
Chapter 1: Subjects
Subject and object are mutually dependent entities; we cannot consider one without referring to the other. Hence, due to this dependent nature, a subject (lit.: object-possessor) is defined as an effective entity endowed with its own object of any kind. But although subject and object are mutually dependent, this does not mean that they are mutually exclusive entities. All subjects, by virtue of their being existent phenomena, are necessarily objects of another subject. In addition, Buddhism ascribes subjective characteristics to material as well as non-material entities. A material subject is an articulate sound. Such a sound, be it a term or a phrase, is subjective in the sense of its denoting a particular object, whereas non-material subjects, such as cognitions and persons, are subjective in their apprehension of an object through the mental faculties.
Mind
The defining characteristics of mind are clarity and cognition. Here clarity refers to the non-material, space-like nature of consciousness… though it lacks physical properties it is not merely an abstract entity like space for unlike space it also bears the defining characteristic of cognition. Cognition is the conscious faculty of apprehension that functions in seeing forms and hearing sounds as well as in all kinds of reflection, inference and understanding.
The mind has tremendous potential, since in dependence upon how we develop and condition it our state of being is thereby determined.
Person
The person is said to be a subject because all individual beings without exception constantly apprehend an object… someone absorbed in a state of meditation will always be referring to some object, however subtle that object may be.
Articulate Sounds
Articulate sound is thus defined as an audible that denotes what it articulates by means of a sign.
Terms are the simple units of speech that we use in order to denote the objects about which we think and talk.
There are two kinds of terms: standard-terms and common-terms. A standard-term is the main term by which a particular object or event is understood. It is defined as a term that is both the principal term for the object as well as the term volitionally and originally given to it. The principal term for an object is the one by which that object alone and no other is denoted.
The common-term for an object is defined as a term that is both a vulgar and a later term for the object. It is said to be a “vulgar term” in that it does not exclusively and precisely denote the object that it refers to, and “a later term” since it is coined at a date subsequent to the acceptance of the standard-term. Such terms are ascribed to their objects either for reasons of similarity or relationship with another object.
A phrase is defined as an expressive audible that connects a quality to its basis. Therefore phrases are compounds of words that give us further information about a particular object by means of description.
The definition of a letter is a clear sound that acts as the basis for the composition of terms and phrases.
All terms, phrases and letters are articulate sounds and hence subjects. Their subjective character is that of denoting something. Thus whatever is denoted or expressed by any of these articulate sounds is regarded as the object of that sound. Furthermore, since terms and phrases, in addition to explicitly expressing something, are also able to implicitly suggest something else according to the individual dispositions and outlooks of different listeners, they are said to have both direct and indirect objects. It should be clear how words and phrases are regarded as subjects, but we may wonder how letters fall into this category. Although they do not denote things in the same way as words and phrases, nevertheless since they are the elements by which speech is formed they are said to share its subjective nature.
Chapter 2: Perception and Conception
What is meant by “perception” here is a non-conceptual state of mind, that is to say, a visual, audial, olfactory, gustatory or tactile sense cognition as well as certain immediate mental cognitions. “Conception”, on the other hand, refers to any conceptual state of mind, i.e. a mental cognition that does not behold its objects immediately or barely as in perception but cognises them via the media of mental images.
Perception
Sense Perception and Mental Perception
“Sense-perception” here refers to all non-conceptual cognitions that are dependent for their arisal upon a physical sense-organ, an external form and a previous state of cognition. Hence a visual perception, for example, arises in dependence upon the eye sense-organ, a visual-form and whatever state of cognition that occured immediately prior to it. These three conditions of visual sense-perception are respectively called “the dominant condition”, the “object condition” and the “immediate condition”.
[see table below]
Mental perceptions are similar in nature to sense perceptions except that they do not depend upon a physical sense-organ as their dominant condition. Their dominant condition is said to be the mental-organ. This is not a physical organ but simply whatever state of cognition that immediately precedes the mental perception. This immediately preceding state of cognition, be it sensory or mental, is the dominant condition for a mental perception since it is primarily through its force that the mental perception comes into being. For a mental perception, then, the dominant condition and the immediate condition are the same. As for its object condition, mental perception can arise in dependence upon physical forms as well as subtle objects such as other person’s minds although this latter example would only be perceived in a state of heightened awareness.
True and False Perceptions
Among all these various perceptions some are regarded as“true” whereas others are regarded as “false”. A true perception is defined as a non-deceived cognition that is free from conceptuality. Whatever objects appear to a true perception necessarily exist in the way in which they appear. A false perception, however, although it is a cognition free from conceptuality, is deceived with regard to what appears to it. Its objects do not exist in the way in which they appear.
1. True Sense Perception
True sense perception is defined as a non-deceived cognition, free from conceptuality, that arises in dependence upon a physical sense-organ as its dominant condition.
2. Apperceptive and Non-Apperceptive Cognition
All cognitions experience themselves. They possess an inherent selfconscious quality. This quality of consciousness is known as apperceptive cognition. Apperceptive cognitions are exclusively perceptions. They only have states of mind as their objects and, in addition, they are substantially identical with those states of mind. They never observe any external phenomena. Non-apperceptive cognitions, on the other hand, are all the cognitions that apprehend, either conceptually or non-conceptually, external objects as well as cognitions that are not substantially identical with themselves. This category includes all sense perceptions and conceptual states of mind as well as mental perceptions that perceive external objects. Non-apperceptive cognition has the defining characteristic of bearing the aspect of an apprehensible object, whereas apperceptive cognition has the defining characteristic of bearing the aspect of an apprehension.
3. A True Mental Perception
A true mental perception is defined as a non-deceived, non-apperceptive cognition, free from conceptuality, that arises in dependence upon the mental organ as its dominant condition, An example of a true mental perception.
4. True Apperceptive Cognition
True apperceptive cognition is defined as a non-deceived cognition, free from conceptuality, that bears the aspect of an apprehension. In fact all apperceptive cognitions are non-deceived and non-conceptual and hence these characteristics are applicable to any apperceptive state of mind.
5. True Contemplative Perception
True contemplative perception is defined as a non-apperceptive cognition in the mind of an Arya that is non-deceived and free from conceptuality, and which arises in dependence upon the unified concentration of mental quiescence and penetrative insight as its dominant condition. Such a perception is exclusively true, non-deceived and non-conceptual and only occurs in the mental continuum of an Arya, i.e. one who has immediately comprehended selflessness. In addition, to attain its dominant condition, the unified concentration of mental quiescence and penetrative insight, it is first necessary to bring the mind to a state of concentrated quiescence as well as to cultivate a penetrating state of intelligence that comprehends the meaning of such things as the selflessness of the person. But it is only when these two states of consciousness are unified into one concentrated stream that they are said to be able to give rise to a true contemplative perception. Examples of such contemplative perceptions would be those that perceive subtle impermanence, those that perceive the gross selflessness of the person and those that perceive the subtle selflessness of the person.
Conceptions
It is by means of thoughts and conceptions that we consciously respond to the objects that have been barely perceived by the senses.
Perception is essentially a receptive, non-reflective form of cognition whereas conception is responsive and reflective. As we saw in the previous section, perception relies upon three primary causes for its arisal: the dominant, object and immediate conditions. Conception, though, only relies upon two of these, namely, the dominant and immediate conditions. Its arisal, therefore, is not primarily dependent upon an object condition but only upon the previously occurring state of cognition, which for it, since it is a mental cognition, would be both the dominant and immediate conditions. Unlike perception it does not apprehend an object through the force of the object’s appearing to it, rather, it apprehends the object primarily due to the force of a subjective disposition. predispositions are not intrinsic properties of the mind, it is possible to overcome any unwholesome and disturbing tendencies through acquaintance and habituation with their corresponding wholesome antidotes.
Mental Images
The most distinctive element within a conceptual cognition is its apprehension of the object by means of “mixing” it with a mental image. To any conception the object conceived appears indistinguishably mixed together with a subjectively projected image of the object. The conceptual cognition, however, is unable to distinguish between the object as it objectively exists and its own subjectively projected image that appears mixed together with the object. Therefore, it is said to be a deceived state of cognition. But to call a conception “deceived” is not necessarily a denial of any cognitive validity. The deception here only concerns the mode of appearance but not the mode of existence of the object. Of course certain conceptions are deceived as to the mode of existence of their objects as well as to their mode of appearance. Thus they fall into the category of mistaken cognition. But many conceptions do correctly apprehend their object’s mode of existence although the object appears in a fallacious manner. A conceptual cognition apprehends its object by means of the intermediary factor of a mental image.
Conceptions Based on Experiential and Nominal Images
A conception is defined as a conceiving cognition that apprehends its object through the media of experiential and nominal images that are fit to be mixed. Generally speaking, we define a mental image of an object as a mentally projected entity that, whilst not being the object, appears as though it were. Here, although we have to make a distinction between experiential images on the one hand, and nominal images on the other, both of them nevertheless bear these defining characteristics. Thus experiential images and nominal images are both types of mental images.
Their difference lies in the manner in which the object in question has been or is being apprehended. If we have had or are having a direct cognition of an object, then it is possible for us to conceive of it via the medium of an experiential image, but without such an experience it would only be possible to conceive of it by means of a nominal image. To conceive of something through a nominal image is not dependent upon a direct experience of the object but merely upon a verbal description of it. Only when we are familiar with the object through direct apprehension as well as through verbal description is it possible to conceive of it in both ways. In such a case the experiential and nominal images of the object appear together. Hence when the definition states “fit to be mixed”, this is to indicate that a conception of an object can occur by means of either an experiential image or a nominal image alone, or by means of the two of them together.
Term-Connecting and Fact-Connecting Conceptions
Most conceptions are said to function in one of these two ways: either they simply give a name to an object or they ascribe certain qualities to an object. A term-connecting conception is defined as a conception that apprehends its object through connecting a term to it.
True and False Conceptions
Furthermore, conceptions are said to be either true or false. A true conception is one in which the object apprehended is existent, whereas a false conception is one in which the object apprehended is non-existent.
Recollections and Future-Orieneted Imagination
Perceptions are concerned with objects presently existing that we are able to immediately experience. The conceptual mind, however, in addition to considering one’s present experience, is also capable of remembering past experiences and planning for events to occur in the future. From a positive point of view we can use our memory to aid us in gaining an understanding of the transient and unsatisfactory character of our lives by recollecting and investigating the nature of our previous experiences. Likewise, we can constructively plan for the future by contemplating the various stages upon the path to enlightenment and by generating a desire to attain these stages and progress along the path.
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